Annabret McKibbin

✧˖°

Before I start, I'm using a different copy of Antigone I had on hand. I'm not sure how, or if, you wanted us to cite our quotes. I'm assuming the book from the source you gave us doesn't have the same layout as mine, so I'm just not going to cite.

It is because of the two brothers' deaths that Creon is left as king. Due to the circumstances in which they died, one fighting for the throne and the other defending it, Creon is left with a difficult decision. One brother died, as king, protecting his kingdom from attack. Of course he would be given an honorable burial. Polyneices, however, wanted to be king as well. He built an army and fought for the title of 'king,' and ultimately died for it. He was an enemy to the throne, but he, too, was a prince. This is Creons first big decision as the new king, and he wants to make a good impression ("I am aware, of course, that no ruler can expect complete loyalty from his subjects until he has been tested in office). What factors are more important in deciding how to bury Polyneices? Creon decides that, above all else, he is an enemy of the state. Polyneices would receive his punishment after death. "No one values friendship more highly than I; but we must remember that friends made at the risk of wrecking our ship are not friends at all." To Creon, above all else, the honor of his kingdom holds the most importance.

The men in Antigone's family have given her a lot of grief. They fight, each other, and then they die. Usually at the hands of one another. She still loves them though, and believes that they deserve the best, even in death. Unlike Creon, she owes nothing to her country. Antigone is a princess, but holds little power. What her brothers did in their life does not matter, as long as they have an honorable burial. "With him in death, I shall be as dear to him as he is to me." Antigone loves Polyneices, and is willing to die for him. She cannot sit still and watch as her uncle disgraces her beloved brother. She is not afraid of death, probably because she has witnessed it so much.

Everyone in this story seems to feel like the gods are on their side. This says a lot about how much power the people feel like the gods have over them. By that I mean: not a lot. While the gods are mentioned repeatedly, the only one to actually provide evidence of a "sign from heaven" is Teiresias, and Creon didn't even take his advice. From what I've read, the gods are merely used as a tool to defend their position, which has been based off of their own feelings. Once everyone dies, Creon, in his despair, decides that it was "fate" (which, generally, is under the control of the gods) that he lose his entire family. He admitted that he was wrong, but it was "fate". Of course, the state will go on without them. This "Curse on Oedipus" has been in the royal family for a while now. Creon will suffer, but the state will continue to function despite his grief. The royal family, so far, has had more affects in harming the state than the gods have, they just blame it on the gods.

This probably would not have happened if the family involved had not been the royal family. The people were quoted of their loyalty being "abosolute". What betrayals were mentioned happened inside of that family. With Creon as the ruler, his word holds the ultimate power. Even the family is ordered to submit to him. This is why Antigone must still be punished. There are perks to being family, however, as how Antigone's punishment went from being "stoned" to merely being locked away. Law does not have authority over a persons feelings, however, and defiance to the law would result in three people taking their own life. The family wanted their authority to be above that of the government, but that could did not happen, so they killed themselves. Creon's decision to disgrace Polyneices may not have been a decision that was favorable to their family, but his word was still law, and they still had to obey it. Letting Antigone disobey him would send a bad message to the rest of his people, "show me the man who keeps his house in hand, he's fit for public authority." He did not anticipate that the way he tried to control his family would result in their deaths.

The Code of Hammurabi are a collection of laws that were observed by the Babylonian people. In the introduction, Hammurabi, the king of the Babylonians, said to have written it. Presumably, he wrote it sometime during his reign from 1792-1750 B.C.E. The Code was originally found inscribed on a large stele, which would have been made available for public display. This means that while these laws were made available for the education and observation of the population of Babylon, as well as members of the government. Before that actual laws are stated, there is an introduction, involving lots of god-talk and glorification of Hammurabi. There are laws, 282 of them, and then an afterword of sorts, that includes a bit of historical context, as well as more god-talk and glorification of Hammurabi (Hammurabi, the perfect king, am I). We see in the laws a recurring theme of "adult, male, native Babylonian," and "everyone else." Slaves, women, and children (or a combination of those) are not given nearly equivalent rights to that of the "adult, male, native Babylonian." My favorite example being law #132, where, if an otherwise innocent woman is accused of cheating, she should throw herself in the river- just for the sake of her husband. Throwing yourself in the river is another recurring theme in the Code. If it was unclear who was innocent, the accused would throw themselves into the river, and if the gods let them survive, they were innocent. Amongst the strange and unfair laws, I noticed, were two good ideas. The first is a kind of minimum wage, making the pay for a certain job clear and official. The other was the concept of "innocent until proven guilty," which we may recognize as the foundation of the American judicial system.

The story of creation in the book of Genesis, as with most religious theology, is disputed over being a literal historical narrative of creation, or a poetic metaphor of what really happened. Officially, the author and dating of the book of Genesis is unknown, but the generally accepted answer is Moses, and between the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. The given text is the story of creation, where God speaks everything into existence over the course of a week. Then, Adam and Eve come along, quickly figure out sin, and are ejected from the Garden of Eden. Metaphorically, this would be a great explanation for the Big Bang, evolution, and the struggle that is humanity. God created earth in six days, or, according to modern science, 4.54 billion years. Humans, in full obedience to God, would get to live a perfect life, as is shown with the Garden of Eden. Satan comes in, in the form of a snake, and convinces us to take of bite from the Apple of sin. Technically, Eve takes a bite from sin, but Adam also watches and does nothing to stop her. Bystanders are equally guilty. Thus creating the fault in our lives, causing us the be kicked out of the perfect life, living without the all-encompassing protection of God, due to our failure to obey Him.

This article, I felt, was less "The Biblical Creation in its Ancient Near Eastern Context" and more "theological essay on why Judaism was, and now Christianity is, the superior religion." This was definitely an article more intended for theological discussion amongst Christians. I understand why there would be a bit of a bias, as BioLogos is a Christian organization. A thought that stayed with me throughout the article, however, was the "staying power" of the Hebrew religion. Joseph Lam portrayed well that Judaism had a more peaceful and positive set of beliefs, in comparison to the other popular Ancient Near Eastern religions. He made a point of Hebrew creation beliefs being similar to that of other Near Eastern religions, but, if I remember correctly, the stories of the Old Testament had been passed down orally for generations before anyone ever wrote them down. It doesn't surprise me that neighboring societies had similar ideas.

The Hebrews: Covenant and Law reading consists of five excerpts from three books from the hebrew Bible. They cover, well, the laws and covenants spoken directly from Yahweh to a person, who then passed it on to everyone else. The Pentateuch, of which these three books are in, are Biblically documented as written by Moses between 1400 and 1450 B.C. These laws and covenants, in a way, made the Hebrew nation more communal (they all had to obey the same laws, as directed by the God they all worshipped). First, in Genesis, we hear of God telling Abraham about the nation that will be created out of Sarah and him, then making male circumcision mandatory. The next two texts come from Exodus, in which Moses is told ordered to free the Hebrews by God in the burning bush, and later receives the ten commandments. Finally, in Deuteronomy, we are told to obey God, what will happen if you do (every good thing, and what will happen if you don't (every bad thing). Yahweh would provide his people with everything they needed, and in return they had to show and unflinching and all-encompassing devotion to him. This is exemplified in both of the texts in Exodus and in Deuteronomy. Like Hammurabi's code, we again see that the native (hebrew), adult, male was given full rights, and slaves, women, and children are lesser variations. For a time, and this is debated over being historically accurate, the Hebrews were enslaved by the Egyptians. This again would play a uniting role in the Hebrew culture, as they are freed by their God, and then given laws as a nation under I Am.

also, I scored a 38 out of 70 on the practice test

Annabret,

I detect some skepticism about the Biblical accounts. That's fine. Just remember, this is history class, not Sunday School or anti-Sunday School. I remember the difference, don't worry about that.

While Herodotus' writings are intended to be historically accurate, the conversations involved probably aren't word-for-word accurate. So, this is technically non-fiction, but in the same way that "based on a true story" movies are non-fiction. Herodotus published "The History" in 440 B.C. His works are known as the first major historical publication, ever. He was a pioneer in the idea that humans should, you know, keep track of everything we do. The selection in the book is a recorded conversation between three Persians arguing their opinions of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. In the end, monarchy won. This excerpt was a glimpse into what life was like as a member of the Persian empire. They discuss the pros and cons of living under their current monarchy, and how life would be different under a different type of government.

    This text is a part of Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War. It is a retelling of Pericles' speech at the annual funeral for the dead Athenian warriors. Thucydides' History was published in 431 B.C., but Pericles gave his speech in 421 B.C. The bulk of Pericles' speech is his discussing the merits of the Athenian government, and then a few sentences where he offers sympathy to families of the dead. The speech itself is very nationalistic. This is to be expected, though, as it is a government-organized event and Pericles was a politician. The patriotism that could've been inspired by this, also, might have been aimed to ease the pain of the dead's loved ones, having died ever so honorably. He also makes a comment saying that the "greatest glory of a woman is the be least talked about by men."

Indus River Valley Civilizations
When: 2500-1600 BCE
Where: Indus River Valley (Northern modern-day India)
Major Cities: Harappa, Mohenjo Daro
Government: Unknown, priestly class was very influential, unified government
Economy: Mainly agricultural; cities were major trading centers
Culture: "Conservative"; houses and cities (2) had uniform layouts and styles; resistant to outside innovation; rigid class structure; big into jewelry; had a complex written language
Religion: polytheistic; fertility goddesses; priestly class was very influential
Inventions: popularized riverboats and ox carts; a written language; advanced agricultural tools; yoga (maybe)
Demise: officially unknown; flooding at Mohenjo Daro; earthquakes; desertification; loss of governmental control due to aliens and working class; Aryan invasions

Aryans
When: had always been a nomadic herding people, but gained lots of power when they migrated between 3000 and 2000 BC
Where: originally, between the Caspian and Black seas, migrated to Asia Minor, Europe, Iran, and the Indus River Valley
Government: extremely militaristic; relations with indigenous peoples were illegal; non-unified government
Economy: cattle; conquering other people
Culture: !!!Militaristic!!; herders; good with horses; no major artistic endeavors, except for music; didn't develop writing for awhile; patriarchial; gambling; 4 social classes (priests, warriors, merchants, farmers, and everyone who wasn't aryan); "restless and warlike people"
Religion; Polytheistic; human-like; purpose of creation, fate of the dead, and the nature of the soul were non-issues; no concept of reincarnation or transmigration of the soul; hell=house of clay, heaven=World of Fathers; Indra chief deity; influenced modern Hinduism
Inventions: Hinduism, kind of; advanced weapons; really good cavalry
Demise: after they took over the Harappans, they stayed there, and are still there

Shang
When: 1700 BC
Where: North China Plains; Yellow River
Government: Monarchy; battled rival communities; seen as intermediary between God and people; weird ritual responsibilities; Anyang the capital city; vassals (governed lower classes; tributes for king; appointed by aristocratic class; supplied armies; mini-governments for villages); rulers lived in compounds with extended family
Economy: agriculture; artisans were usually slaves
Culture: patriarchal; upper classes obsessed with rituals, oracles, and sacrifices; lots of peasants, lived in sunken homes; really intense burial ritual rituals for upper classes; main artistic efforts were with ornate bronze vessels; developed a written language; obsessed with river control
Religion: upper classes were obsessed with rituals, oracles, and sacrifices; oracles were very important; polytheistic; peasant class had soil and hearth gods
Inventions: chinese written language; hoes, spades, and crude plows; used bronze weapons; developed irrigation techniques

Zhou
When: 1000-800 BCE
Where: North China Plains; Yellow River
Government: same as Shang, but held more power; mandate of heaven; Shi (alternative to military govt; educated people; kept record, ran department, organized rituals and ceremonies; gained political power); feudalism
Economy: relied heavily on peasant output; firmly agricultural
Culture: patriarchal; lived separately from non-Zhou; manners and decorum influenced by religious practices; vassals lived in wall garrisoned towns; religious ceremonies very important
Religion: ancestor veneration; human sacrifice ended; elaborate ceremonies designed to win blessing of heaven; emphasis on meticulousness
Inventions: improved what the Shi started, in most aspects
Demise: loss of vassal power; decline in power of Zhou kings; group overthrew Zhou (rescued young prince, but divided the kingdom and created a power-struggle and lots of battling and suffering and ended the unified government)

Qin
When: 300-207 BCE
Where: North China Plains, Yellow River
Government: allowed peasants to claim their own land; superior army; concentrated on warfare; copper money; Shi Huangdi (megalomaniac; legalistic; unified post-Zhou China; states to provinces; standard script, currency, units; great wall and clay army; thought control); payed officials; king had absolute control
Economy: heavily taxed peasants; agriculture
Culture: lagged in fine arts and etiquette; legalistic; more militaristic than Zhou; patriarchal
Religion: same as Zhou
Inventions: Legalism, used bronze and iron; cavalry and crossbow innovations
Demise: overthrown post-Shi Huangdi

Han Dynasty
When: 220 BC
Where: North China Plains; Yellow River; conquered South China, Vietnam
Government: still monarchal; Shi as ruling class; banned legalism-Confucian teachings; Liu Bang (went from jobless poor guy to unifying China under Hans; Daoist); Huns outside of walls major enemy; state-run university; scholar-gentry; capital city of Xi'an (forbidden city housed royalty; zoo; grid structure); Eunuchs
Economy: major source from trade; mining and manufacturing; agriculture; income correlated heavily on land-ownership
Culture: patriarchial, but a little less than in other Chinese eras; 5 classes (Shi, "ordinary but free people", underclass, scholar-gentry, merchants); secret societies peasants; scholar-gentry from children of Shi had lots of power; merchants had lots of money but were politically oppressed; art mainly decorative (calligraphy; bronzes, ceramic figures, bowls, vases; jade, ivory carvings; silk screen); astrological focus on prediction; importance of education if you can afford it; larger towns; confucian influences
Religion: more religious importance than Qin; but same religion
Inventions: shoulder collar, wheelbarrows; a university; secret societies; the zoo; brush pen & paper; watermills; rudders & compasses; mining techniques; silk; porcelain; developed an accurate calendar; acupuncture; standard units
Demise: 220 AD; government lost power; Eunuchs; temporarily overthrown by Wang Mang

Annabret,

Good stuff here! Keep it up.

Brahman-Dominated India
When: 700-500 B.C.E.
Where: foothills of the Himalayas
Government: monarchal; Brahmans held power as advisors and educators (like Shi); caste system determined legal rights; religious-based law system
Economy: agriculture
Culture: caste system; Brahmans educated upper classes; wrote in Sanskrit; lots of towns emerged; trade and manufacturing- distinguished merchant and artisan classes; mostly peasant population; three major varnas (warriors, priests, commoners), with occupational subgroups, based off of level of "pollution"; largest affordable extended family, high degree of security and companionship; women still subordinate to men, allowed certain occupations (poets, musicians, artists, teachers, amazon, nun); art mainly done in wood
Religion: Brahman-dominant; successful ritual guaranteed results; born into caste system; reincarnation; karma; Vedas; only upper classes allowed to read Vedas; Brahmans as mediators between gods and humans; Aryan warrior-herders against Brahmans
Inventions: developed advanced irrigation, agricultural tools; used pottery, cotton textiles; rise of the Brahmans happened during this time; literary works (Vedas written down, Mahabharata, Ramayana)
Demise: Brahmans were self-serving; religious bankruptcy; petty wars

Mauryas
When: 3rd Century BC
Where: Ganges Plain region
Government: monarchal; lots of measures taken to protect rulers; local lords attempted to be replaced by kings' administration; Arkashastra; Brahmans still had power; Chandra Gupta (322-298 BCE), his son Bindusara, Ashoka (268-232 BCE, turned into a Buddhist, great ruler, built a lot of things, oppressed Brahmans, tried to do away with caste system); conquests made kingdom larger
Economy: Trade, Agriculture
Culture: Buddhism popularized; women, lower varnas benefitted; women still inferior; amazons; Brahmans lost a lot of power; caste system weakened; Ashoka built new roads, hospitals, rest houses
Religion: Buddhism popularized; reincarnation; karma; Brahmans still a thing; stupas; cows
Demise: didn't last long after Ashoka's death, gone by 185 BC; back to warrior rule; Alexander the Great

Guptas
When: 320 AD-550 AD
Where: Ganges Plain region
Economy: Trade, Agriculture
Government: smaller empire than Mauryans; rulers supported Hinduism; caste system becomes stricter; women legally minors; monarchal still; brahmans still educators and advisors; vassal empire
Culture: caste system more rigid than Mauryans; stricter social rules; Brahman-inspired cultural works (literature, music, architecture; art; natural sciences; temples); art stressed symbolism; mandalas; written languages in Sanskrit and Tamil; Kalidasa; questioned nature of space, time, causality; science and math findings; trade involved with China and Greece; Elites had lots of luxuries, old men expected to become ascetics; ordinary people didn't have any fun outside of public entertainment events and rituals; courtesans
Religion: Buddhism lost power; monasteries lost touch with society; Brahmans became more people-friendly; Hinduism absorbed Buddhism; Buddha is Vishnu incarnate; Signet Ring of Chandragupta
Inventions: arabic numerals; Pi; developed medical procedurs; geometry and algebra; Kama Sutra; courtesans; chess & pachisi
Demise: Hun invaders; Skanda Gupta last able ruler; dissolved back into tiny states and kingdoms by mid 7th century AD

This text is a real account of a conversation between Crito and Socrates. It is unclear exactly when it was written, but it would have to been between the years of Socrates' death, 399 B.C., and the death of the author, Plato, in 347 B.C. Socrates was an important Greek philosopher; he never formally wrote down anything himself, so various accounts of his teachings and conversations were written by his students. This specific account covers the conversation between Crito and Socrates after he has been sentenced to death by the Athenian government. Crito comes in, in hopes of convincing him to break out, and Socrates offers a very long explanation of why he needs to die. His main point is that, after living his whole life an obedient citizen of Athens, he would be breaking a promise with this intangible Law. This is understandable. He has lived his whole life in submission and approval of the Athenian government, and to only do so in the face of death would be wrong. Also, this itself would be under the scrutiny of his peers and students, as it would (arguably) go against his life's teachings. However, there is strong evidence that he was falsely accused during the trial. In this case, it would not have been Law as much as the Athenian judicial system.

This is a true account of Socrates' having a discussion between a student. It was written by Plato, who was alive between 427 and 347 B.C. Plato was one the many students of Socrates that wrote down his teachings. The text is two excerpts from Plato's The Republic. In the first, from book VIII, is Socrates' discussing the pros and cons of oligarchy and democracy, in the context of the Athenian government. The second is the Allegory of the Cave, which is a metaphorical discussion on human education. With the first text, there is a clear difference between the rich Athenian aristocrats and everyone else. Their interaction with the government is distinctly different from that of the American democracy, but there are still some similarities and truths in his philosophy. The allegory is interesting, as it is a glimpse into a culture where not everyone gets education, and has access to things like the internet, or even books.

Bantu-Speaking Peoples
When: 800-1000 B.C.E. to 1300 C.E.
Where: West Africa ----> Senegal River to Lake Chad and the upper Nile Valley
Government: "forms of kingship"
Economy: trade (pottery, metals, canoes, crafts); agriculture; herding
Culture: transhumant; organized around kinship ties; arts (oral epics, polyphonic music, sophisticated wood sculpture);
Religion: spirits of the natural world; witchcraft; ancestral protection; migration myth (two people, twins, incest, repeat)
Inventions: went from wood and stone to iron;
Demise: they weren't ever a true empire; faded into smaller cultures and kingdoms

Ghana
When:300-1076 C.E.
Where: present day Republic of Mali
Government: monarchal; defeated leaders of the Meroe; capital was Kumbi Saleh (two cities, six miles apart); tax revenues from gold and salt trades; army of 200,000 men; powerful and well organized kingdom; tributes from neighboring societies;
Economy: trade (gold!); agriculture
Culture: wealthy; trade very important; gold(!!!!!!)
Religion: converted to Islam
Demise: overthrown by Almoravids in 1076; turned into Mali

Germans
When: 100 B.C.E.
Where: Northern Europe
Government: chiefs; tribal; strong and brave warriors; mainly nomadic in early era; later tribes merged to form little organized societies
Economy: nomadic; conquered other people
Culture: women, elderly, slaves, did household tasks; resembled celts; women were holy and prophetic; married late; dowry; "good morality"; lacked cities
Religion: worshipped nature; norse mythology (creation myth)
Demise: populated europe; helped overthrow Roman empire

Japan
When: 600 B.C.E.
Where: modern-day Japan
Government: strict legal codes; ruled by warrior elites; Yamato rulers; Nara and Heian; became similar to Chinese government;
Economy: Agriculture;
Culture: interchange with China; China never ruled over them; islands' natural beauty affected them; disciplined, hard working; 90% peasants; few slaves; matriarchal; written language adapted from Chinese; became patriarchal;
Religion: Shinto (polytheistic, natural world); then Buddhist (from China)
Inventions: wheel-turned pottery; sophisticated bronzeware; Shinto imperial cult;

Polynesia
When:300-1000 C.E.
Where: from Asia; to New Zealand, Hawaii, Tahiti, Easter Island, Samoa, Fiji, etc.
Government: tribal; chiefdoms; extremely hierarchal in some places; incestuous rulers; kapu; war-oriented
Economy: agriculture
Culture: colonizing other islands; relied mainly on fish; sex was important; ate all of the wingless birds; not many skilled workers; war-oriented; rich oral tradition
Religion: polytheistic; kapu; Makahiki thanksgiving festival; hulas; sexual activity
Inventions: agricultural innovations; man-made fisheries; complex boats

The Politics is a work of Political Philosophy, written by Aristotle in 350 B.C.E. The Politics discusses Aristotle's beliefs about ethics, and how they relate to politics. He discusses the nature of man, and the nature of the state. He also discusses the ideal structures and functions of both. This text discusses both the function of the Greek government, as well as the people and their hierarchal position and roles in Greek society. For example, he explains why slavery is a good thing, as was legal in Greek society. Also, he justifies the idea that only rulers are true citizen, which was also a thing in Greece. Aristotle believes that man is naturally inclined to have either a "ruler" or "ruled" position in all aspects of their lives. The nature of the state is to rule over the people, as humanity is naturally inclined to be ruled over, but is also susceptible to corruption. The ideal forum of the state is a polity, where the masses rule well. Justice, according to Aristotle, is given according to merit. This means that the people who work the hardest and are the most skilled get the highest rewards.

I didn't know where to post this, so this is the abridged version of our religion essay you asked for.

The religion of Hinduism, essentially, is a collection of other religions absorbed into one set of beliefs. It is thought to have emerged from the Aryan peoples of North India. The caste system it utilizes are a defining part of ancient Hinduism; consisting of four varnas, or classes, based on their levels of "pollution." This is central to their beliefs in reincarnation, karma, and vegetarianism. Hinduism is a polytheistic religion, but each person choses a patron deity to devote their lives to. In a way, this creates a personally monotheistic Hinduism. Many of the more important gods have multiple incarnations and forms that are worshipped, varying in gender, power, and purpose. Ancient Hinduism was very different from modern Hinduism, mainly in that ancient Hindus did not worship primarily from temples, and many of the key works of literature were not written until the Common Era.

Olmecs
When: 1200-400 B.C.E.
Where: southeastern coast of Mesoamerica
Government: ruled by "hereditary elite"
Economy: agriculture?
Culture: grew Maize; stone heads; vigesimal numerical system (20); unknown language; both decorative and functional art;
Religion: 260 day ritual cycle; complex?
Inventions: impressive settlements; drainage systems; monumental sculpture; urbanism; the beginnings of calendar and writing systems; the ability to move stones weighing tons
Demise: ?????????????????????????

Maya
When: 300 B.C.E.-900 C.E.
Where: Mesoamerica
Government: main cities controlled outer states; constant warfare; rulers excercised civil and probably religious power; self mutilation and human sacrifice by rulers; elite women held importance;
Economy: agriculture?
Culture: Teotihuacan; influenced by Olmecs; serveral languages; written language; a calendar; mathematical system; concepts of statecraft and social organization; several agricultural systems; system of dating; ritual ball game; builders, potters, scribes, sculptors, painters worked in the city; peasant farmers worked outside the city, were majority;
Religion: many deities; dualism; various manifestations of certain important deities; self mutilation and human sacrifice; ritual ball game;
Demise: ???; outside invaders; abandoned cities; agricultural exhaustion

"Mound Builders"
When: 700 B.C.E.-1400 C.E.
Where: Mississippi and Ohio River valleys
Government: Cahokia; chiefdom;
Economy: trade; agriculture
Culture: mounds (burial, defense); jewelry; tobacco; clay and pottery; social divisions; maize
Demise: ????????

Chavin, Mochica, Inca
When: 850-250 B.C.E. (Inca) 200-700 C.E. (Mochica) 1438-1532 (Inca)
Where: Andes Mountains region
Government: expanded control by conquest; hilltop forts and military posts; military states or chiefdoms; leaders had privileges of dress and access to resources;
Economy: Agriculture
Culture: wide variety of crops; llamas and alpacas; land carvings of animals (crop circles); gold and silver jewelry; copper tools; pottery vessels ("explicit sexual acts"); extensive irrigated agriculture; kin groups (ayllu); several languages
Religion: cult?; jaguars, snakes, birds of prey, humans with feline characteristics used as decoration; don't understand popularity or origin; similar to Olmec; huacas; reciprocity
Demise: spread into other cultures

Polybius was a Greek historian, living during the years 200-118 B.C.E. During the time he wrote The Histories, 167 to 151 B.C.E., he was held hostage in Rome. In this piece, taken from book six, he shows us the aspects of Roman culture and government that were superior to their enemies', and how that led to their defeat. In describing the Roman government, divided into three separate powers, he shows not only their positive attributes, but also the parts that give an opportunity for corruption. This shows that he is making an effort to give an accurate description, while also explaining how Rome rose to it's place of extreme power. The history Polybius wrote about had happened during his lifetime, or around his lifetime, and probably would have been relatively common knowledge amongst the population. This means that the audience would have been for later generations; an accurate representation of the happenings from someone who was alive for it. It is interesting that, while being held hostage, how neutral Polybius is in his writings about the Romans. It can even be debated that he is nationalistic, in a way, as he makes a specific effort to document Rome's superiority and its rise to power. Nationalism, or, a deep sense of community, was probably central to Roman culture. He tells the story of Horatius Cocles, who died valiantly for his country, sacrificing himself to weaken the enemy in a time of war. Polybius does, in this selection, fail to go into much detail about Carthage or any of Rome's other enemies. While he does supplement some with comparisons to Rome's superiority, there isn't much context involving non-Roman civilizations.

In 44 B.C.E., a year before his death, Cicero wrote a letter to his son. He wanted to instill wisdom unto his misbehaving son, and it became what we today call On Duties. Cicero was an extremely influential orator and philosopher, whose ideas have contributed greatly to western literature, and even the Christian religion and the American constitution. The letter is separated into three sections, the first on morals (and their individual, hierarchal order) the second is on how to chose actions that are, in his opinion, good. The third is similar to the second, except he details times that it is harder to differentiate, and how to make the best decision. Essentially, book one is "right and wrong"; book two is "right and wrong acts"; and the third is "right and wrong acts, in real life." He hopes that his son will understand this, that he is just a victim of a morally wrong society. He was a politician, so he had experience on how things were failing, due to their lack of adherence to these rights and wrongs. People are selfish, and doing selfish things does not always mean that people are doing bad things. In their society, however, people were doing this explicitly for self-gain, with others at it's expense, and this was leading to the downfall of the Republic. Of course, we never know the outcome of this letter. Nor do we know, from this piece, whether or not his opinion as to why Rome fell was accurate. This is just his philosophy, and not concrete facts.

Augustus was the Roman Emperor between 27 B.C.E. and 14 C.E. Within a year of his death, he wrote a list of his accomplishments that would be engraved on two pillars and publicly displayed. Augustus is a historically important ruler, and brought a lot of power to Rome. This is apparent in the list of every great thing that he had ever done. Nearing the end of his life, he probably wanted to make sure that he would be remembered in a positive light, glorified even. Tablets have a good staying power, and therefore would be able to be publicly displayed for generations. The Roman people, and beyond, would be able to read about his accomplishments, chronologically, and remember him as a great ruler. Of course, no one knows a person better than themselves, so he wrote it out with his own hand, from his own memory. Of course, this leaves room for him to "edit" certain information. This is apparent with the total lack of anything negative, or even neutral, about himself in this piece. While I cannot confirm from the text that he did leave anything out, I assume that he was not a perfect ruler, and did make decisions that left people unhappy. These negative aspects would have influenced his kingdom, and because of this, later accomplishments.

2007, 2A
The first paragraph doesn't explain any continuities, but gives a good amount of global context. In the body paragraphs, both changes and continuities are given. The writer sounds like she has a decent knowledge of what she’s writing about. In her last paragraph, she does give continuities, which would probably count as her thesis.
2007, 2B
In the opening paragraph, the writer gives some global context, but it ends up being vague and not very relevant. They don’t saying anything about continuity in their assumed thesis. The body paragraphs don’t correlate well with the thesis. While it looks like the writer got the main ideas and concepts of what he was writing about, it seems like he doesn’t really know any details or facts.
2007, 2C
The writer has big, clear handwriting that I haven’t had trouble reading, and I wish I could give her a point for this. She needs it. The opening paragraph is full of generalizations. No global context. The thesis is nonspecific, and “they are coming to be an independent area” is not a continuity. The writer seems like she obtained most of her knowledge of the middle east off of the news, instead of a history book. There is a total lack of details.

2004, HHH
There is no opening paragraph!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! It’s just a sentence. As a thesis, it gives us a continuity, but it’s not super clear. He gives a lot of details, which is good. Global context is in the body paragraphs, and I’m not sure if thats alright. There’s not a closing paragraph.
2004, AAA
Excellent thesis, gives examples of both changes and continuities. She gives many details, while also tying them together to form the big ideas. Good closing paragraph.
2004, PPP
The opening paragraph is sort of one big thesis, but also ties in global context and I think that is bad. Body paragraphs are good, if not excessive. Gives examples of changes and continuities. Really good little thesis in the closing paragraph.